A) we recall something better if we are in the same context in which we originally learned the material.
B) we recall something better if we are in a context that is moderately different from the original learning context-not too similar and not too different.
C) recall depends upon how specific the instructions are; vague instructions lead to poor recall.
D) it is more effective to encode material during learning than to decode the material during recall.
F) B) and D)
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A) experts showed more activation in the prefrontal cortex, areas implicated in working-memory processes, than novices did.
B) experts and novices showed equal activation in the prefrontal cortex.
C) neither experts nor novices showed activation in the prefrontal cortex.
D) expert doctors possessed more sophisticated long-term memory knowledge that reduced the burden on their working memory systems.
F) A) and D)
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A) Joe would actually recall very little information about the hurricane, due to repression and other avoidance strategies.
B) Joe would seldom think about the hurricane; if asked, however, he could accurately reconstruct the details.
C) Joe's recall would be more accurate than Sam's, even if it is not perfect.
D) Joe and Sam would have fairly similar patterns of recall, despite the differences in their experience with the hurricane.
F) All of the above
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A) Recognizing which advertisements had been presented 1 hour ago and which ones are new
B) Recalling the names of popular fairy tales
C) Matching French vocabulary words with their English translations
D) Completing a word for which the first and last letter have been supplied
F) A) and B)
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A) they are typically more correct than they estimate themselves to be.
B) they are almost as confident about their incorrect memories as they are about their correct memories.
C) their confidence about their eyewitness testimony is strongly correlated with the accuracy of the testimony.
D) their confidence is reduced because of the constructivist effect.
F) A) and C)
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A) Albena: "Encoding specificity works especially well in laboratory settings."
B) Mary Lou: "Encoding specificity works especially well for events that happened long ago."
C) George: "Encoding specificity is especially likely when the material has been well learned."
D) Takeshi: "According to the research, physical context is more important than all other encoding cues; studies that have congruent physical context are very likely to demonstrate encoding specificity."
F) B) and C)
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A) flashbulb memory.
B) an implicit memory task.
C) reality monitoring.
D) a dissociation.
F) A) and D)
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A) Context effects are very clear-cut, especially in laboratory research.
B) Current research suggests no evidence for the encoding-specificity principle.
C) Context effects are often demonstrated in our daily experiences, but the effect is relatively weak in laboratory research.
D) Context effects are especially prominent when the material has been well learned.
F) B) and C)
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C
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A) 10%
B) 25%
C) 50%
D) 75%
F) C) and D)
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A) people are remarkably resistant to new, inconsistent information.
B) a question containing incorrect information can alter people's recall of the original event.
C) misleading information influences recall for children, but not for adults.
D) these new memories created by post-event information are more vivid than memories created by real events.
F) B) and D)
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A) implicit memory.
B) encoding specificity.
C) elaboration.
D) autobiographical memory.
F) A) and C)
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A) experts do not really perform substantially better than other people on memory tasks, when you consider memory for material related to their area of expertise.
B) experts are usually accurate in reconstructing missing parts of information from material that they partially remember.
C) experts typically have both a well-organized knowledge structure in a particular area and outstanding general memory skills.
D) expertise is primarily helpful because it exercises the mind, similar to the way a body-builder exercises the muscles of the body.
F) B) and C)
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B
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A) is more likely when items have been in memory for a long time.
B) is more likely when tested by recognition, rather than recall.
C) works only for negative or neutral events.
D) works best when testing physical context, rather than mental context.
F) A) and B)
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A) "We often reconstruct the specific details of an event, and we fail to see its similarity to other similar events in our life."
B) "Our memory for an event sometimes changes over time, depending on our current beliefs."
C) "Memory resembles a blank slate, on which the events of our life are recorded; the marks on that slate that are most permanent will be the ones that endure in our memory."
D) "The constructivist approach is especially useful when people want to increase the accuracy of their memory."
F) None of the above
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A) participants typically process items at a shallow level of processing, even when they are instructed to use deep processing.
B) the meta-analysis of the data on the self-reference effect demonstrates that this technique is not especially helpful.
C) participants cannot really relate items to their own lives.
D) the participants reported that they had often used self-reference processing, even when they had received other instructions.
F) A) and B)
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D
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A) emotionally neutral.
B) mildly unpleasant.
C) a violent cartoon show.
D) a violent news program.
F) A) and B)
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A) Most memory errors concern relatively trivial information, rather than central, important information.
B) In autobiographical memory, implicit memory is much more accurate than explicit memory.
C) Our autobiographical memory tends to be highly accurate, even for minor details.
D) Each time we receive new information about a life event, it is stored together with a "marker" that indicates when this new information was added.
F) A) and B)
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A) working memory.
B) semantic memory.
C) episodic memory.
D) procedural memory.
F) All of the above
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A) is typically greater in the research on encoding than in the research on autobiographical memory.
B) is relatively strong when the research examines the correspondence between a real-life event and the memory of the event.
C) is more likely in the research on implicit memory than in the research on explicit memory.
D) is a concept that was strongly emphasized in the early history of cognitive psychology, but it is now considered relatively unimportant.
F) All of the above
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A) Harry: "Elaboration means that you retrieve an item from working memory and use it immediately.
B) Jodi: "Elaboration happens when you have successfully used encoding specificity."
C) Elizabeth: "Elaboration means that you are trying to make an item as different as possible from all other items in memory."
D) Soltan: "Elaboration means that you think about how an item is related to other concepts."
F) A) and C)
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